Language Acquisition

Cognitive Approaches To Second Language Learning

The idea that second languages are acquired differently than first languages has been around for sometime and has had many different theorists supporting it. One theorist, Stephen Krashen, created five hypotheses’ that have been the most influential cognitive models thus far. These five interrelated hypothesis’s are:

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

The Natural Order Hypothesis

The Monitor Hypothesis

The Input (Comprehension) Hypothesis

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Although all of these hypothesis’s are important and interrelated one of them is especially essential. Comprehensible input, Krashen points out, is the essential ingredient for Second Language Acquisition (Wright, 2015, p.53). He goes on to explain that people can only acquire second languages if they gain this comprehensible input, and when they do comprehend this input acquisition is inevitable.

Another theory that supports the cognitive model of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is the Interaction hypothesis. Research has shown in the past that interaction is vital to acquiring a second language and most of the time this interaction occurs through conversation. Long, the person who created this hypothesis, argues that the comprehensible input hypothesis and the interaction hypothesis go hand in hand. He claims that comprehensible input is needed but that input can be made comprehensible through modified interaction (Wright, 2015, p.53). This idea further demonstrates how learners need opportunities to interact with speakers to reach a mutual comprehension.

The next person that added to this discussion of cognitive approaches to second language learning was Swain in the late 1980’s. She argued that when learners are in conversation, making an effort to produce language that the person with whom they are conversing can understand, they are most likely to see the limits of their second language ability (Wright, 2015, p.54). Basically the idea is that knowing you have to speak will force you to pay attention more to what you are saying.

Knowing this idea, many theorists including Swain have contended that comprehensible input alone is not enough and it must be paired with comprehensible output to enable language acquisition. There are many different hypotheses that support cognitive approaches to second language learning.

One of those hypotheses explains how language learners transfer the knowledge of their first language over when learning a second language. The idea of this is that the person will usually take the content-area knowledge and literacy skills they have learned in their first language and apply it when learning the second language.

Another notion associated with this idea of language learning is the Iceberg model of language interdependence made by Jim Cummins. This model believes that between the surface features of both the first and second languages lies the Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP). The image below illustrates the Iceberg model.

Besides his contributions of the Iceberg model, Jim Cummins has coined two terms relating to the idea of academic language. His idea of academic language was that there is a certain type of semantics that is used at school in order to help you learn academics better and faster. Cummins two terms were BICS and CALP.

Basic Cognitive

Interpersonal Academic

Communication Language

Skills Proficiency

His first acronym, BICS, stands for basic interpersonal communication skills. This is believed to be the communication skills used in everyday communication with each other, also known as “social talk.” His second acronym, CALP, stands for cognitive academic language proficiency. This is thought to be academic language, and the communication style utilized in academics. Cummins states that, “BICS refers to conversational fluency in a language while CALP refers to a students’ ability to understand and express, in both oral and written modes, concepts and ideas that are relevant to success in school (Wright, 2015, p.40). Although some regard Cummins acronyms as germane, others have argued the validity of them. One critique has been that the distinction between conversational proficiency and academic language proficiency is an over simplification of the complex construct of language proficiency, and that the use of these terms leads to misunderstandings about language (Wright, 2015, p.40). Although I can understand both sides of this perspective, I cannot determine who is correct and incorrect. Although, I would argue that there is a time and a place for both academic and social language, and a time when they should be used together.

Visit the website below to see WIDA's descriptors of the features of academic language

References:

Wright, W. E. (2015). Foundations for teaching English language learners: research, theory, policy, and practice (Second ed.). Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.

Image Retirved From: https://www.google.com/imgres imgurl=https://sites.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/Best%2520of%2520Bilash/Images/icebergmodel.gif&imgrefurl=https://sites.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/Best%2520of%2520Bilash/iceberg.html&h=250&w=250&tbnid=TkBmfPDHuvJjCM:&tbnh=160&tbnw=160&usg=__iTf9p7T-xovnrhPv8GE4c4vkKpg=&vet=10ahUKEwiE-p7n8dDWAhVBl1QKHVwyCvEQ9QEIMTAA..i&docid=I3JnttXDi-8b6M&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE-p7n8dDWAhVBl1QKHVwyCvEQ9QEIMTAA#h=250&imgdii=WTJiqKsFPXas6M:&tbnh=160&tbnw=160&vet=10ahUKEwiE-p7n8dDWAhVBl1QKHVwyCvEQ9QEIMTAA..i&w=250

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Sociocultural Perspectives On Language Learning

Of the many theorists that have influenced the sociocultural perspectives associated with language learning, Lev Vygotsky, has had quite a large impact. Vygotsky coined the term, Zone Of Proximal Development (ZPD), to explain his idea that learning is a social activity and knowledge is constructed through interaction and collaboration with others (Wright, 2015, p.56). The Zone of Proximal Development is essentially the zone in which students will learn the most in the most effective way. The idea is that this zone is where the content is not to difficult and not too easy, but achievable with the assistant and guidance of someone with more knowledge. This assistance within the ZPD is called Scaffolding, with the idea that “scaffolding” is temporarily used to build something and removed once the building is completed (Wright, 2015, p.56). The ideas of ZPD and Scaffolding can also be applied to other areas besides language learning, but are especially helpful within this area.

Some of the other theorists that have influenced the sociocultural perspectives associated with language learning have been Ochs and Schieffelin. These theorists helped to shape the idea of Language Socialization. Language Socialization refers to “the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge and practices that enables them to participate effectively in a language community” (Wright, 2015, p.58). Ochs and Schieffelin would argue that as the student is learning the new language they are also gaining knowledge about how to use this new language in different sociocultural contexts and communities.

The next notion that supports sociocultural perspectives on language learning is the idea of the additive compared to subtractive models of bilingualism. The Subtractive model of bilingualism expresses that when a new language is learned it replaces the first language. The student or language learner will stop learning and practicing their first language in order to learn and practice exclusively their new second language. The Additive model of bilingualism states that when a student develops proficiency in a new language they do so without losing his or her home language (Wright, 2015, p22.). Basically that a student will be able to learn and practice a new second language while at the same time continuing to learn and practice their original home language.

Another entity related to the sociocultural perspectives on language learning is an idea referred to as Translanguaging. This idea has been around for some time and has evolved over the course of time thanks to García. You may have heard of this idea before, but maybe you recognize the term “code switching.” The original idea of code switching was that when you speak multiple languages you “switch” to different parts of your brain. An example of this would be that I am using my English brain all day at school and at night when I go home I turn off my English brain and turn on my Spanish brain to converse with my family. Of course this idea only lasted so long before someone claimed that something is going on in your head, called translanguaging. The new idea of translanguaging describes drawing from knowledge from both languages when conversing in different settings. An example of this would be someone that is drawing from both their knowledge of the English and Spanish languages at the same time to have one coherent academic discussion at school. This idea of translanguaging also supports the notion of the holistic, dynamic perspective.

I also thought it would be important to add that WIDA has a wider definition of this, that seeks to balance both Cummins’ original idea that there is such a thing as language that is used in school and it is different than language used in social settings.

References:

Wright, W. E. (2015). Foundations for teaching English language learners: research, theory, policy, and practice (Second ed.). Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.

Remington Landis